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SISP Conference 2022

Sections and Panels

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Section 2 - Government, Parliament and Representation

Managers: Andrea Pedrazzani (andrea.pedrazzani@unimi.it), Federico Russo (federico.russo@unisalento.it)

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Il modo in cui funzionano le democrazie rappresentative contemporanee viene spesso interpretato come una catena di deleghe che collega i cittadini al sistema politico. Lungo la sequenza di deleghe, i cittadini trasferiscono poteri decisionali ai rappresentanti eletti nelle assemblee legislative e ai membri dell’esecutivo. In questo schema, i detentori di cariche pubbliche sono resi responsabili nei confronti dei cittadini attraverso una varietà di meccanismi, con un ruolo di primo piano per i partiti politici specialmente nei sistemi parlamentari. Le studiose e gli studiosi che si rifanno a tale quadro concettuale tendono a privilegiare oggetti di ricerca come la qualità della rappresentanza elettorale, il grado di congruenza politica tra cittadini ed élite politiche, il funzionamento delle istituzioni politiche di vertice e la natura dei rapporti tra esecutivo e legislativo. Accanto ad argomenti tradizionali come quelli elencati, è di recente cresciuto l’interesse per altri temi, quali le forme di rappresentanza di natura non elettorale. La presente sezione è dedicata sia ai temi più classici sia a quelli emergenti, e dà spazio ad analisi che possono essere articolate su molteplici livelli (subnazionale, nazionale e sovranazionale). Sollecitiamo la presentazione di panel che esaminino il rapporto tra cittadini e parlamentari, i percorsi di carriera politica dei rappresentanti, il comportamento degli eletti, l’organizzazione interna dei parlamenti, le questioni dibattute in parlamento, il processo legislativo, i rapporti tra esecutivo e legislativo, il governo e le forme di rappresentanza non elettorali. Sono graditi anche i panel sulle conseguenze delle varie crisi – economica, migratoria, sanitaria – che hanno investito le democrazie europee negli ultimi anni. I panel di questa sezione possono concentrarsi sul sistema politico italiano oppure adottare un approccio comparato.

Si accettano panel che trattino i seguenti argomenti, da non ritenersi comunque esaustivi.

Cittadini e parlamentari

La rappresentanza politica è un concetto particolarmente complesso e multidimensionale, in quanto i politici possono connettersi ai cittadini in molti modi. I parlamentari, infatti, rappresentano i cittadini non solo attraverso le proprie attività nel collegio elettorale e l’impegno a garantire risorse a favore di quest’ultimo, ma anche mostrandosi ricettivi alle opinioni degli elettori. Per questo motivo, lo studio della corrispondenza attitudinale tra cittadini e politici costituisce tuttora un tema importante per le studiose e gli studiosi interessati alla rappresentanza. L’analisi della congruenza politica tra elettori e rappresentanti è un filone di ricerca particolarmente promettente alla luce delle crisi che hanno recentemente colpito le democrazie europee.

Carriere politiche

Le politologhe e i politologi italiani hanno dedicato un’attenzione considerevole allo studio delle carriere politiche. Molto è cambiato dai giorni in cui Giovanni Sartori analizzava le caratteristiche biografiche dei parlamentari italiani. La disponibilità di nuovi dati online su parlamentari e titolari di incarichi esecutivi nelle istituzioni locali, regionali, nazionali e sovranazionali apre nuove opportunità per studiare le traiettorie di carriera in diversi molteplici istituzionali.

Comportamento legislativo

Due innovazioni stanno rivitalizzando gli studi che riguardano il comportamento dei parlamentari: da un lato, i nuovi dati sulle attività legislative e non legislative e una serie di sviluppi metodologici hanno aperto possibilità pressoché illimitate per le ricercatrici e i ricercatori; dall’altro, si è sviluppato un acceso dibattito sui fattori che influenzano il comportamento legislativo. La classica divisione tra coloro che guardano alle norme e ai valori sociali e coloro che considerano i politici come attori puramente razionali ha lasciato il posto a uno sforzo più costruttivo per capire come interagiscano la logica dell’appropriatezza e la logica della consequenzialità.

Organizzazione interna dei parlamenti

Lo studio dell’organizzazione interna del parlamento ha una lunga tradizione in Italia, soprattutto per quanto riguarda le peculiarità del bicameralismo italiano e il ruolo delle commissioni legislative. Tuttavia, questo tema merita ulteriori approfondimenti. Poiché le assemblee legislative sono entità che si evolvono nel tempo, è necessario aggiornare le analisi comparative già esistenti in letteratura, in cui sono stati messi a confronto diversi sistemi politici. Inoltre, il caso italiano offre una serie di argomenti estremamente interessanti da affrontare, come ad esempio gli effetti delle revisioni apportate nel tempo ai regolamenti parlamentari, l’evoluzione del ruolo delle commissioni legislative (un tempo così potenti), e l’impatto della recente riduzione del numero dei parlamentari sul funzionamento del bicameralismo.

Issue-politics in parlamento

Secondo la letteratura sulla issue-competition, i partiti politici competono enfatizzando le questioni su cui godono di un vantaggio rispetto ai loro avversari. Se la issue-competiton è stata originariamente studiata analizzando i programmi elettorali, lavori più recenti hanno iniziato a fare luce su come e perché i partiti distribuiscano l’attenzione tra i vari temi, mentre svolgono il loro ruolo di rappresentanza in parlamento tra un’elezione e l’altra. Lo studio del contenuto di interrogazioni parlamentari, disegni di legge, leggi, decreti e discorsi di investitura è diventato uno dei modi più promettenti per osservare la queste dinamiche al di là del contesto elettorale.

Processo legislativo

Come messo in evidenza da un programma di ricerca ampio e in continua crescita sul policy-making nei sistemi multipartitici, l’arena legislativa è principalmente il luogo in cui i membri delle coalizioni di governo sviluppano modalità di convivenza reciproca e raggiungono compromessi sulle politiche. La disponibilità di un enorme volume di dati online sui processi e gli output legislativi consente alle studiose e agli studiosi di approfondire diversi argomenti in quest’ambito, adottando disegni di ricerca con un numero di casi molto elevato. Alcuni esempi sono l’analisi delle dinamiche di cooperazione, competizione e conflitto tra gli attori (appartenenti al governo e/o all’opposizione), lo studio delle conseguenze della frammentazione in parlamento, l’analisi di come preferenze diverse nelle due camere possano plasmare gli esiti legislativi, e l’esame della produzione legislativa in tempo di crisi.

Rapporti tra esecutivo e legislativo

A partire dall’inizio del 21° secolo le democrazie europee sono state scosse da diverse crisi, come la Grande Recessione, la crisi migratoria e la pandemia da COVID-19. Mentre i primi due shock hanno modificato i contenuti della competizione politica e aumentato la polarizzazione, si ritiene che l’emergenza sanitaria possa avere alterato radicalmente l’equilibrio tra parlamenti e governi. La necessità di affrontare la pandemia ha comportato un’espansione delle prerogative degli esecutivi a scapito dei meccanismi di responsabilità, intaccando i poteri di controllo delle assemblee rappresentative e la loro capacità di formulare le politiche. Tuttavia, alcuni segnali indicano che i parlamenti hanno saputo reagire, a volte anche innovando le proprie procedure organizzative e decisionali.

Il governo

Oltre ad essere centrali nel processo decisionale in tempi normali (specialmente nelle democrazie parlamentari), i governi svolgono un ruolo di primo piano nella gestione delle crisi. Sebbene argomenti come il ciclo di vita degli esecutivi e l’output dell’attività di governo siano stati estesamente studiati nella letteratura comparata, molti aspetti relativi alla sfera governativa devono ancora essere esplorati. Ad esempio, la fase di governance ha ricevuto molta meno attenzione rispetto alle fasi della formazione e della fine del governo. Inoltre, le nostre conoscenze possono essere ampiamente migliorate riguardo al grado di continuità/discontinuità che si osserva a livello di personale ministeriale passando da un governo al successivo. Anche il ruolo dei tecnocrati e delle competenze tecniche nei processi decisionali deve essere ulteriormente studiato, soprattutto nel contesto delle recenti crisi.

Forme di rappresentanza non elettorali

Coloro che si occupano di teoria politica hanno recentemente sottolineato che una relazione rappresentativa può emergere anche al di fuori del contesto elettorale. Esiste una relazione rappresentativa ogni volta che qualcuno afferma di parlare o agire per conto di qualcun altro, a condizione che tale affermazione sia accettata dal pubblico a cui ci si riferisce. La rappresentanza di natura non elettorale è molto comune nei sistemi democratici: i movimenti sociali e coloro che si “autoproclamano” rappresentanti agiscono tipicamente allo scopo di difendere una causa senza avere ricevuto un mandato in tal senso. La rappresentanza non elettorale può contribuire alla correzione di alcuni limiti delle tradizionali istituzioni rappresentative e arginare in maniera preventiva il rischio che le autorità politiche esercitino un potere egemonico.
 

Panel 2.1 The Changing Role of the President of the Republic in the Italian Political System (I)


More than any other president of a contemporary parliamentary democracy, the Italian head of state can play – and indeed has played – a significant political role. In fact, since the collapse of the Italian party system in 1992-4 and especially in times of economic crisis or political turmoil, Italian presidents have actively intervened in a significant way to safeguard the Constitution and improve the working of the Italian political system. In other words, when the party system is in a period of upheaval, the figure of the president is called upon as a ‘backup power supply’ to ensure that the system continues to function. Within this context, the ‘prolonged presidency’ of Sergio Mattarella, originally elected in 2015 and then re-elected for a second, exceptional term in 2022, makes no exception to this rule.
As a matter of fact, the re-election of Mattarella (after the then unprecedented re-election of Giorgio Napolitano in 2013) not only strengthen the role of the head of state vis-à-vis other political institutions and even more so the political parties, but it eventually casts some doubts on the very nature of the parliamentary regime. Hence, the crux of the matter is no longer to what extent the president can expand – to use a well-known metaphor – his ‘accordion’ of presidential powers, functions and prerogatives but, more importantly, whether he has become, voluntarily or not, the new conductor of an orchestra playing his opera.
Under this light, this panel invites contributions from scholars investigating the evolving role of the president of the Republic within the changing Italian political system from different analytical perspectives, by taking into consideration his relationship – not always smooth – with the political parties, his atypical style of political communication (both online and offline), his exercise of executive power, his function in the chain of democratic delegation and, finally, his peculiar contribution to that process of more or less covert presidentialization that has characterized Italian politics since the early 1990s.

Chairs: Fortunato Musella, Marco Valbruzzi

Discussants: Fortunato Musella

Parties, Policy Issues and the Adoption of Programmatic Policies in Times of Crisis (Italy 1996-2018)
Giorgia Borgnino
Abstract
This paper investigates the influence of the economic context on partisan policymaking. A focus on how the economic context constrains (or enables) parties’ policy production is of crucial importance especially today, in a period when the global economy is becoming increasingly interconnected and European countries have dealt with (and some are still dealing with) a severe economic crisis. Most of the existing literature shows how the political and the party system as well as the related distribution of power in the countries influence parties’ capacities and incentives to promote their policy preferences. At the same time, however, they rarely observe how the macroeconomic conditions in which parties are called to act can play a role in this process too. And even when they do, scholars usually underline the negative implications for policy production. In this study, I argue in favour of going beyond a viewpoint that only considers the constraining effect, without reflecting also on opportunities, issues, and electoral considerations that arise from a recession period. Are parties able to strategically take advantage of a negative economic situation for adopting their programmatic policies? A recession modifies power dynamics, produces a change in the electorate’s expectations, reduces the availability of financial resources, and increases international and European pressures on national politics. Faced with new external conditions and challenges, how do partisan office-holders react? This research draws upon a scholarship that empirically explores the existence of a party-policy linkage by looking at the congruence between parties’ electoral promises and policy outputs. This approach considers pledge fulfilment (i.e. the congruence between pre-electoral statements and the legislation enacted once in office) to determine the strength of the party-policy relation. Based on the analysis of election pledge fulfilment in Italy (1996-2018), this study empirically demonstrates that governing parties’ behaviour in times of crisis is essentially different (and it is driven by different factors) in times of crisis compared to normal times: During a recession governing parties adapt their behaviour and strategies to the new context and pressures. Despite the presence of important constraints, governments have electoral and political motivations to still try to carve out space for (some of) their preferred policies. Specifically, this paper shows that an economic crisis does not merely have a detrimental impact on partisan capacities to shape policies. On the contrary, electoral and political motivations, reputation issues, and voters’ concerns are just some of the elements that may even boost partisan politics during downturns. Results from logistic regressions indeed suggest that the influence of the state of the economy on governing parties’ capacities to achieve their ideologically-driven policies is largely contingent on (1) the ideological family to which the party belongs and (2) the issue of the policy. Overall, left-leaning governments’ autonomy is heavily curtailed in times of crisis. Nevertheless, they appear to be able to mobilise the discretionary power they have left for realising their policy preferences related to the welfare state. Right parties, on the contrary, are less challenged by macroeconomic factors.
Party Government Decline, Mediatization, and the Increasing Power of Italian Presidents
Michelangelo Vercesi
Abstract
For the second time since the coming into effect of the republican Constitution, in January 2022 the joint session of the Italian parliament and the delegates of regional councils reelected an incumbent president of the republic (after the case of Giorgio Napolitano in 2013). This event was nothing but a confirmation of the increasing political influence of the head of state and the adverse selection dilemma that political parties face when a presidential mandate terminates. While the specialized literature has mostly explained presidential influence as the result of contingent conditions, this paper argues that more stable factors matter as well. It aims to account for the steady increase of presidential strength which has been characterizing Italian politics since the 1990s from a ‘structural’ viewpoint. In particular, it assumes that – all else equal – presidents benefit from two main sources of informal power: party support and media visibility. The main expectation is that – in times of growing personalization and mediatization of politics – the latter becomes relatively more important, in that media can more successfully present presidents as key political players to the public. In other words, the legitimacy of presidents as actors who can contrast parties’ actions increase in the eyes of voters, irrespective of their lack of direct accountability. To assess these propositions, this paper provides a systematic comparison of the informal power of the Italian heads of state and its changes from Luigi Einaudi (1948) to the second term in office of Sergio Mattarella (2022).
FARE E DISFARE I GOVERNI: LA PRESIDENZA MATTARELLA E LA SUA FISARMONICA ISTITUZIONALE
Raffaella Fittipaldi
Abstract
Il paper intende indagare l’evoluzione del ruolo e dei poteri del Presidente della Repubblica tenendo in considerazione i mutamenti avvenuti nel sistema partitico italiano a partire dal 2018. Vista l’elasticità della figura presidenziale, il sistema partitico si pone, infatti, come un importante motore in grado di determinarne espansione o ritrazione. Oltre alla dimensione inter-partitica, la stessa crisi della forma-partito ha ulteriormente contribuito a ridisegnare ruoli e funzioni delle istituzioni politiche che, per una lunga stagione repubblicana, avevano basato l’essenza del loro governo proprio sul partito (burocratico di massa). I poteri e le funzioni del Presidente della Repubblica italiana sono tratteggiati in vari articoli della Costituzione, tuttavia la pratica di tali prerogative, dai confini inevitabilmente incerti, risente del generale contesto socio-politico e quindi dei rapporti con le altre istituzioni e, segnatamente, con i partiti che le popolano. Quando i partiti hanno una forte organizzazione e controllano solide maggioranze governative, il Presidente della Repubblica si ritrae; al contrario, nel momento in cui i partiti sono più deboli e destrutturati, il Capo dello Stato conquista più ampi spazi di agibilità, sfiorando – o sforando – i margini costituzionali. In particolare, all’interno di questa cornice, il paper si propone di analizzare la presidenza di Sergio Mattarella nel corso dei due mandati (dal 2015 al 2022), prendendo in considerazione l’area politica di riferimento e il processo di elezione del Presidente della Repubblica, nonché l’esercizio del potere di nomina e del potere di scioglimento anticipato delle Camere. Il paper intende dunque indagare nel dettaglio le trasformazioni avvenute nel processo di formazione (e sostituzione) dei governi, mettendo in luce la crescita dei poteri presidenziali rispetto alle prerogative del capo di governo, da un lato, e alle funzioni dei partiti e dei rappresentanti parlamentari, dall’altro. A che punto di apertura è giunta la fisarmonica presidenziale? Quale eredità lascerà la Presidenza Mattarella in termini di forma di governo e sistema dei partiti all’Italia? Quale evoluzione nei rapporti tra Capo dello Stato, partiti e parlamento è lecito aspettarsi in futuro? Su questi interrogativi si concentrerà la parte conclusiva del paper.
 

Panel 2.1 The Changing Role of the President of the Republic in the Italian Political System (II)


More than any other president of a contemporary parliamentary democracy, the Italian head of state can play – and indeed has played – a significant political role. In fact, since the collapse of the Italian party system in 1992-4 and especially in times of economic crisis or political turmoil, Italian presidents have actively intervened in a significant way to safeguard the Constitution and improve the working of the Italian political system. In other words, when the party system is in a period of upheaval, the figure of the president is called upon as a ‘backup power supply’ to ensure that the system continues to function. Within this context, the ‘prolonged presidency’ of Sergio Mattarella, originally elected in 2015 and then re-elected for a second, exceptional term in 2022, makes no exception to this rule.
As a matter of fact, the re-election of Mattarella (after the then unprecedented re-election of Giorgio Napolitano in 2013) not only strengthen the role of the head of state vis-à-vis other political institutions and even more so the political parties, but it eventually casts some doubts on the very nature of the parliamentary regime. Hence, the crux of the matter is no longer to what extent the president can expand – to use a well-known metaphor – his ‘accordion’ of presidential powers, functions and prerogatives but, more importantly, whether he has become, voluntarily or not, the new conductor of an orchestra playing his opera.
Under this light, this panel invites contributions from scholars investigating the evolving role of the president of the Republic within the changing Italian political system from different analytical perspectives, by taking into consideration his relationship – not always smooth – with the political parties, his atypical style of political communication (both online and offline), his exercise of executive power, his function in the chain of democratic delegation and, finally, his peculiar contribution to that process of more or less covert presidentialization that has characterized Italian politics since the early 1990s.

Chairs: Fortunato Musella, Marco Valbruzzi

Discussants: Marco Valbruzzi, Fortunato Musella

Reinventing Italian government: The role of the President of the Republic from 2006 to 2022
Annarita Criscitiello
Abstract
The living constitution that has undergone considerable transformations in the delicate and long phase of transition between the first and second Italian Republic has inevitably also concerned the role and functions of the president of the Republic. The well-known metaphor of the accordion on presidential powers that expand and contract according to the role played by the parties in the political system has become all the more fitting in the last three Legislatures which, with the Constitution unchanged, have recorded two important 'exceptional' responses by the president to the serious political crises he has found himself facing. On the one hand, the appointment of prime ministers outside the parliament and the parties, which have been called 'governments of the president', and on the other hand, the election of a double mandate of Giorgio Napolitano in April 2013 and Sergio Mattarella in January 2022. This article is divided into 4 parts. The first part traces the main transformations of the presidency that mark the passage from the "Quirinale of the parties" to the "Quirinale of the President", focusing on the presidents of the transition, Scalfaro and Ciampi, and on how their role was adapted and shaped by the changes in the political system. The second part analyzes the cases of the 'presidents' governments', that is, the cases of serious political crisis in which the role of the President of the Republic was decisive in the choice of the head of the executive. The third part focuses on the presidency of Sergio Mattarella and its 'exceptional' characteristics that seem to have become the rule of an evident process of presidentialisation of the Italian parliamentary republic that goes well beyond the dictates of the written Constitution. The challenges and prospects that this process entails for the Italian government will be discussed in the concluding part.
Super Partes? The Conflictual Relationship between Heads of State and Cabinets in Italy
Andrea Ceron
Abstract
For a long time, Italian Heads of State were perceived as neutral political actors, with a limited influence on everyday politics. Recent episodes occurred during the presidential terms of Napolitano and Mattarella, however, suggest that Heads of State can play a political role trying to influence cabinet formation and the everyday political process. In light of this, the present paper aims to analyze the conflictual relationship between Heads of State and cabinets in Italy, with a focus on the propensity of the President of the Republic to veto the promulgation of laws, sending them back, joint with a message, to the Parliament (thus increasing the level of conflict between institutions and potentially influencing the policymaking). Taking advantage of a new dataset, based on the textual analysis of Presidents’ investiture speeches and new Year’s Eve messages, this paper will map the political position of Italian Heads of State across 70 years (1949-2021). By doing that, we will investigate whether the political distance between the President and the government’s majority increases the probability that the President will publicly express his political disagreement through the veto. This effect will be investigated taking into account the size and the heterogeneity of the government coalition, as well as the state of the economy and the occurrence of crises.
The 2022 Presidential Election within the Web Environment
Luigi Rullo, Federica Nunziata
Abstract
This article aims to retrace the main stages of the 2022 Italian Presidential election through the messages spread within the Web environment. Particularly, it investigates the digital communication of the main political leaders and representatives involved, as a privileged dimension to the understanding of contemporary Italian politics. To reach these objectives, the article is divided into three sections. Firstly, it discusses the main challenges of Presidential elections over the last twenty years, by observing how the digital disruption has transformed its fundamental dynamics and communication strategies. Secondly, it employs methodological approaches that are based on digital methods and content analysis to explore the digital discourse of party leaders and representatives before, during and after the 2022 election. More specifically, it analyzes how they used social media platforms as primary tool to inform and engage with both citizens and mainstream media, as well as to shape the political bargaining. Overall, the article argues that, although Italy’s Presidential race lacks of any formal list of candidates as the election is decided largely behind closed doors, the spread of digital platforms shifts to some extent maneuverings between political forces in the public view, somehow introducing a new phase of campaigning. Finally, it shows how the Presidential election in the Web environment contributed to the presidential personalization in Italy, and explores complementary reasons that gave digital platforms a new centrality in the Italian political scene.
 

Round table

Panel 2.2 Regulating lobbying in Italy: what has been done so far and what should be done from now on. The view of policymakers and practitioners - Round table:


After 96 unsuccessful attempts over the course of almost fifty years, for the first time in the history of our Republic a bill aimed at regulating lobbying has recently been discussed in parliament and is seemingly progressing in its legislative process. Although this is an important event, it is by no means certain that the proposal currently under discussion will become law before the end of the legislature. In addition, that same proposal suffers from a series of criticalities, on which an interesting and heterogeneous public and professional debate has already developed. This round table has thus the ambition to reflect on those contents so as to highlight the bill’s strengths and weaknesses, bringing into dialogue, on the one hand, policymakers guiding the decision-making process, and, on the other, professionals to whom that specific measure is addressed: lobbyists (both in-house and belonging to the main private consulting firms). The round table will therefore represent an opportune moment of confrontation on a theme that is both currently salient in Italian politics, as well as fundamental for making the decision-making process more transparent, thus (potentially) contributing to increasing the quality of Italian democracy.

Speakers:


Fabio Bistoncini, CEO FB & Associati. Advocacy and Lobbying
Gianluca Comin, CEO Comin & Partners
Claudio Di Mario, Founding partner ADL Consulting
Giusi Gallotto, CEO Reti. Pubblic Affairs, Lobbying & Communications
Renata Lizzi, Università di Bologna


Discussant: Alberto Bitonti, Università della Svizzera Italiana

Chairs: Luca Germano, Andrea Pritoni

 

Panel 2.3 Citizen's participation in the parliamentary lawmaking process - Institutional refinements or façade?


In many contemporary democracies, we can observe a general citizen's disappointment with politics and political institutions. There is ever-growing literature dealing with the crisis of representative democracy and discussing the various ways of rescue from this malaise. However, we are convinced that there is still a need for a new explanation of this phenomenon, taking into account the perspective of a tangent point between two faces of a democratic regime: representative and direct. In particular, we intend to focus on the applied institutional engineering in the field of "co-production" in political decision-making, with specific emphasis on the direct involvement of citizens in the lawmaking process in national parliaments.
The panel aims to provide a platform to discuss the current role of participatory tools by analyzing key instruments of direct citizens' participation in lawmaking:
- referendums,
- citizens' legislative initiative,
- public hearings,
- petitions and consultations.

We would like to scrutinize to what extent the use of various tools of direct (or participatory) democracy manifests its potential to shape institutional arrangements, impacts the quality of legislation, and legitimizes representative bodies and processes of decision making. On the other side, our purpose is to reveal to what extent they are used as a decorative element of representative parliamentary logic intended to veil persistent parties' dominance.
We encourage researchers to present papers imaging various approaches that examine the short- and long-term impact on the dynamics of change in representative democracy, emphasizing new developments in its participatory dimensions. Both theoretical and empirical works on this issue are welcome. Proposals with a comparative approach will be particularly appreciated.

Chairs: Izolda Bokszczanin, Malgorzata Lorencka

Discussants: Izolda Bokszczanin

Open lobby democracy: a deliberative approach to the role of interest groups in policymaking
Alberto Bitonti
Abstract
Most people are used to think that interest groups are a problem for policymaking, as conveying “special interests” in contrast with the “Public Interest” and exerting disproportionate influence toward policymakers through money, privileged access, and lobbying. This is also why many deliberative democrats (with some notable exceptions) rule out any substantial role for interested parties in deliberative settings. What if, however, interest groups and lobbying were key to improving the deliberations that lead to policymaking? Would it be possible to redesign the policymaking process explicitly incorporating interest groups in a way that improves the deliberative quality of the process itself? The article aims to answer this question by reasoning on the added value produced by interest groups in specific conditions of participatory deliberative settings, by clarifying what those conditions are, and by advancing the vision of an “open lobby democracy”, where policymakers are prompted to be more accountable and eventually use interest groups to make better decisions.
How (not) to connect citizen deliberation the democratic system. A comparative analysis of the discursive and coordinative functions of mini-publics.
Andrea Felicetti, Simon Niemeyer
Abstract
This paper investigates two mini-publics: the Iniziativa di Revisione Civica in Bologna, Italy and the Sydney Climate Change Adaptation forum in Sydney, Australia. Our comparison focuses on the impact of the design, dynamics, and outcomes of these mini-publics to the broader democratic system. The Bologna case is illustrative of a mini-public which follows the ‘deliberate then vote’ approach. Citizens were tasked to critically examine the issue of amalgamation of municipalities, and, at the end of the process, the facilitator called for a vote. When the outcome of the mini-public was communicated to the broader community, the vote stripped the mini-public of its discursive content and used it simply as a means of conveying decisiveness. The Sydney case, instead, did not end up with a vote. Instead, it follows the ‘deliberate then propose’ approach where a group of randomly selected citizens came up with recommendations for the City’s Climate Change Adaptation Plan. While the outcome is less decisive, and, at times challenging to summarise, it nevertheless emphasised the discursive content the mini-public generated, and was thus used by policymakers to inform decision-making on that basis. We argue that there are trade-offs between the decisiveness of mini-publics, versus their capacity to spark deliberative moments in the broader public sphere. Further, we make a case for a taxing yet meaningful assessment of mini-publics: how they can enrich the deliberative quality of democratic politics.
Citizens’ legislative initiative in the Polish parliament – process-tracing analysis of democratic innovation
Malgorzata Lorencka, Izolda Bokszczanin
Abstract
The paper aims to examine the feasibility, scale, and effectiveness of citizens' participation in the law-making process in Poland. The institution of citizens' legislative initiative introduced in the Constitution of the Republic of Poland in 1997 seems to be an essential instrument of citizens' participation in the democratic decision-making process. As established theories of participatory and deliberative democracy argue, this semi-direct democracy tool could provide a potentially important (lost) institutional link between citizens and representatives. The principal value of a citizens' legislative initiative is the deliberative aspect (conducting a campaign, collecting signatures on a draft, providing information on a legislative initiative, exchanging views and opinions in discussions). However, we draw attention to the strengths and weaknesses of the current regulation, which seems to limit the innovative potential and effectiveness of this participatory institution, especially by making the final effectiveness of the initiative dependent on political factors - the will of the parliament. In our research, we combine various methodological approaches. Still, we intend to privilege the process tracing analysis method, which is helpful to an in-depth examination of the institutional process "inside the case study." An empirical insight into the use of this tool covers 25 years of institutional practice. A non-linear and contradictory development path could be seen in such a practice, and inconclusive results lead us to formulate an ambiguous assessment. Nevertheless, we underline that a significant advantage of this democratic innovation is the provision of an additional tool for communication and interaction between citizens and political decision-makers, which is crucial in the era of citizens' dissatisfaction with the current functioning of democracy.
 

Panel 2.4 Parliaments in difficult times (I)


Survey data show that the trust of European citizens in their national parliaments plunged from 60 per cent at the turn of the century to 30 per cent in 2014. The situation has even worsened in the most recent years, when European politics has been shaken by several crises such as the Great Recession, the European migration crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic. The combined effect of these events challenged the capacity of national parliaments to perform their traditional functions. In particular, the pandemic has contributed to an expansion of executive powers to the detriment of accountability mechanisms, thus weakening parliamentary representatives’ oversight and policy-making capacities. Moreover, the strengthening of surveillance and coordination of the budgetary policy has dramatically reduced the power of the purse of legislative assemblies within the Eurozone.
We welcome papers examining the consequences of the various crises – economic, migration, health crises etc. – on the relationship between citizens and members of parliament, the political career of representatives, the behaviour of parliamentarians, the internal organization of parliaments, issue-politics in parliament, the legislative process and executive-legislative relations. We also encourage papers from participants to the DEMOPE - DEMOcracy under PressurE - project (PRIN2020), focusing on the impact of crises on democracy and democratic institutions.

Chairs: Andrea Pedrazzani, Federico Russo

Discussants: Andrea Ceron, Federico Russo

Technocracy: appealing idea, disappointing reality? An analysis of the relationship between economic status and support for technocracy
Elisabetta Girardi
Abstract
Since the onset of the financial crisis, technocrats have been playing a crucial role in shaping decisions of political economy in many European countries. Although they are often portrayed as neutral and non-partisan, their decisions are political in that they generate winners and losers, differently affecting citizens based on their socio-economic status. It is consequently reasonable to expect that support for technocracy varies across income lines, but existing research has largely overlooked the issue. We address this gap by formulating and empirically testing hypotheses concerning the relationship between economic status and technocratic attitudes, and how such a relationship changes following the direct and indirect experience with technocrats in power. The empirical analysis, conducted on survey data from the European Values Study (EVS), shows that while in times of non-technocratic government economic hardship increases support for technocracy, this effect disappears following the direct experience of technocratic rule. For the less well offs, technocracy thus appears to be an appealing idea but a disappointing reality.
Law making and online deliberation in the Five Star Movement
Filippo Tronconi, Chiara Fiorelli
Abstract
In the context of an increasing digitalization of political participation, the Five Star Movement has implemented one of the most advanced experiments of platform politics. The online platform Rousseau has indeed been a trademark of this party since its early years, not only for internal deliberations on candidate selection, policy directions, statute amendments, but also for the involvement of ordinary members in the law-making activity of its elected representatives. The use of this tool for law-making is the least studied, and is at the centre of this work. Not only is the FSM an interesting case per se, given the relevance of the party in the Italian political scenario, but it can offer an insight on the potential and limits of online platforms in the work of legislators and in the relations between the party in public office and the party on the ground. In this paper we rely on an original dataset built on a screening of the activity on the Rousseau platform in the section dedicated to legislative activity of MPs (“lex-eletti”) and match this with the official repository of bills presented in the two chambers of the Italian parliament in the last two legislative terms. Through an analysis of these data, we aim to describe how Rousseau has actually been used by MPs, with what consequences on legislative work and on the opportunities for an increased participation of party members.
Playing populist: contextual and ideological triggers of populist rhetoric in the Italian parliament (1948-2020)
Silvia Decadri, Fedra Negri
Abstract
This article offers the most comprehensive diachronic overview on the use of populist rhetoric by Italian political élites and on its contextual and ideological triggers by applying a novel populist dictionary to a newly constructed dataset on parliamentary debates that spans the entire Italian Republican history. As for contextual triggers, our results suggest the use of populist rhetoric is more credible, and thus frequent, for opposition parties and in times of institutional and economic crises. As for ideological triggers, we find that populist rhetoric transcends the traditional left-right cleavage as both left- and right-wing parties use it. Instead, it is significantly more likely to be used by parties with 'demarcationist' ideological positions. Our article thus offers a new perspective on populism, whereby political actors instrumentally resort to populist rhetoric to try and deal with crises and the concept of populism seems to go hand in hand with that of sovereignism.
The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Issue and Ideological Congruence of Trump and Bolsonaro Administrations
Flavio Contrera, Paulo Cesar Gregorio
Abstract
Recent political developments and government control actions in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic draw attention to the contrast between the duties of government and the demands of democratic representation. This study aims to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the issue and ideological congruence between the electoral and governmental arena in both the Trump and Bolsonaro administrations. According to the responsible party model, political parties have distinct platforms, which their members should carry out when elected. Congruence between voter interests and party positions is achieved as voters choose the policy package that best suits their preferences. Fear of retaliation from voters would motivate government parties to be responsive. This argument mobilizes the understanding of two distinct concepts: command and authorization. Command understanding rests on the premise that voters grant the elected party the responsibility to carry out certain tasks or actions. In turn, authorization is based on the perception that by winning elections, after submitting a platform to the voter's evaluation, the government gains the moral right and responsibility to implement it. Voters would assess, thereby, both party's issue priorities in the election and party's performance in implementing their platform, selecting good policies or politicians that support it. The winning party platform becomes the mandate governments seek to carry out, a prelude to the future government agenda. Influenced by Rational Choice Theory, studies on party behavior provided models that understand parties as a small, goal-oriented group. Political parties would centralize relevant issues in their platforms by incorporating recent issues demanded by their voters or issues in which they would have advantages in the competition. However, the duties of the government and the demands of democratic representation can often be in sharp contrast. This tension becomes particularly clear in times of economic, social, and political crisis when governments are pressured to follow non-electoral logic to the detriment of social and control policies. In this context of instability, the defense of certain issues would lead to a bifurcation in national politics that, on the one hand, suffers from the growing complexity of governing in a world composed of various institutional pressures and, on the other, with the need to respond to the various electoral demands. COVID-19 was declared a pandemic in March 2020 by the World Health Organization (WHO) - a result of its seriousness and, above all, its rapid geographic spread. Faced with this emergency, acting governments were subjected to national and international constraints regarding the implementation of an agenda of containment, control, recovery, diplomatic agreements between partners, and order. Configured by the absence of effective treatment protocols, the COVID-19 pandemic led governments to implement divergent strategies to reconcile the growing demands of actors who began to act as fervent pressure groups. Elected by mobilizing far-right issues, Trump and Bolsonaro denied the seriousness of the COVID-19, contributed to the population's misinformation, and led the United States and Brazil to the top of the ranking of deaths by COVID in the world. Taking up the strong nationalist appeal that marked their election campaigns, Trump and Bolsonaro moved away from the WHO guidelines. Demands on the health and the social protection system, contrasting with growing pressure from the economic sector for actions to protect companies and services, required their governments to redefine their issue priorities. The analysis was conducted from two datasets. Campaign manifestos and Executive actions. We use the terms campaign manifesto, platforms or electoral programs, indistinctly, to indicate the documents in which the parties publish their proposals and political positions of the candidacy. For the American case, we assessed the 2016 Republican Party platform and the 220 Executive Orders issued by Donald Trump as president (2017-2021). For the Brazilian case, we assessed the campaign manifesto of the Social Liberal Party of 2018 and 208 actions of the Executive, among which provisional measures (MPV), bills of law (PL), and complementary bills (PLP), issued by Bolsonaro in the first two years of his term (2019-2020). Data from both campaign manifestos were collected in the Manifesto Research for Political Representation (MARPOR). That data informs parties' salience to the 56 MARPOR issue categories and show the ideological position of the party manifesto in the left-right scale (RILE). RILE index is calculated by subtracting the sum of the percentages of the right categories from the sum of the percentages of the left categories. The index ranges from -100 to 100, and these values are considered the extreme points on the left (negative values) and on the right (positive values). In turn, the Executive actions data of the United States were collected in the Federal Register and the Executive actions data of Brazil were consulted in the Federal Chamber of Deputies. From the MARPOR coding scheme, we assign an issue category to each of the Executive’s actions. Like MARPOR, we used the code (000) to classify Executive actions that did not fit into one of the 56 issue categories. To assess congruence between electoral and governmental issues, we used the Nihans index (Np). The Nihans index is used to separate a homogeneous set of quantified items, establishing the limits in three classes. Class A gathers categories with greater prominence in each manifest, class B is intermediate, and class C groups the other categories. Therefore, it allows a better demonstration of the distribution according to the relative importance between the issue categories. To estimate the ideological position of the Trump and Bolsonaro governments we calculated an adapted monthly cumulative RILE index. Findings show different patterns of issue congruence for United States and Brazil. While issue congruence is consistent with right-wing ideology in Trump's case, Bolsonaro issue congruence is inconsistent with his ideology. Another important contribution of this work is assessing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on government’s agendas. Indeed, the COVID-19 pandemic similarly shaped Trump and Bolsonaro governments’ agendas, which despite supporting denial discourses and practices, were compelled to respond, through the editing of a wide range of executive actions, to the health and social protection demands on one side, and to promote economic incentives for businesses on the other. As a result, the ideology of both governments, measured using quantitative criteria, gradually moved to the center-left. However, the high incidence of response actions to the pandemic does not mean efficiency in its management. On the contrary, Trump and Bolsonaro denied the seriousness of the COVID-19, contributed to the population's misinformation, and led the United States and Brazil to the top of the ranking of deaths by COVID in the world.
 

Panel 2.4 Parliaments in difficult times (II)


Survey data show that the trust of European citizens in their national parliaments plunged from 60 per cent at the turn of the century to 30 per cent in 2014. The situation has even worsened in the most recent years, when European politics has been shaken by several crises such as the Great Recession, the European migration crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic. The combined effect of these events challenged the capacity of national parliaments to perform their traditional functions. In particular, the pandemic has contributed to an expansion of executive powers to the detriment of accountability mechanisms, thus weakening parliamentary representatives’ oversight and policy-making capacities. Moreover, the strengthening of surveillance and coordination of the budgetary policy has dramatically reduced the power of the purse of legislative assemblies within the Eurozone.
We welcome papers examining the consequences of the various crises – economic, migration, health crises etc. – on the relationship between citizens and members of parliament, the political career of representatives, the behaviour of parliamentarians, the internal organization of parliaments, issue-politics in parliament, the legislative process and executive-legislative relations. We also encourage papers from participants to the DEMOPE - DEMOcracy under PressurE - project (PRIN2020), focusing on the impact of crises on democracy and democratic institutions.

Chairs: Andrea Pedrazzani, Federico Russo

Discussants: Fedra Negri

The pandemic, the parliament and the government: the case of Italy 2020-2022
Gianluca Piccolino, Elisabetta De Giorgi
Abstract
The Covid-19 pandemic has affected not only our daily lives but also the functioning of institutions and the mechanisms of representative democracies around the world. The emergency context has heavily strained the relationship between governments and parliaments, with the former in need to quickly pass emergency laws to overcome the emergency even at the expenses of the prerogatives of the latter. These elements are particularly interesting in the Italian case, the only major country that has experienced a change in government during the pandemic without running an election. Our paper aims at exploring the evolution of the executive-legislative dynamics during the state of the emergency in place in Italy from February 2020 to May 2022. In particular, we intend to explore to what extent the government tried to push its policies through executive decrees instead of ordinary laws and whether these dynamics changed moving from the second Conte cabinet to the Draghi one. We will try to answer these questions with the help of an original coding including all pieces of legislation passed in these two years.
Democracy in times of trouble: Pandemic, democratic backsliding and resilience in Poland and Italy
Angelo Vito Panaro, Adam Szymanski, Lukasz Zamecki, Andrea Cassani, Luca Tomini
Abstract
With a focus on the Covid-19 pandemic, this paper deals with the consequences (if any) that crises might have on the quality and survival of democracy in a country. The autocratization literature suggests that such crises (notably, exogenous shocks) entail a risk of democratic backsliding, especially when governments declare the state of emergency to concentrate power in their own hands and derogate to some democratic rules. We contend that crises and states of emergency’s “backsliding effect” crucially depends on other political, institutional and agency factors, which shape a country’s pre-pandemic vulnerability to autocratization and determine the actions actually taken during the emergency. We compare Poland and Italy, that is, two countries in which, when the pandemic broke out, democracy was experiencing some troubles, even though to different extents. We find that in Poland the Covid-19 pandemic has catalysed an ongoing process of backsliding, whereas in Italy it had no significant effect (for the time being, at least). Indeed, it seems to have blocked/frozen a potentially risky situation for democracy, thus offering an opportunity for democratic resilience.
Peace at home, conflict abroad: ideology, mission type, and parliamentary support for military interventions
Valerio Vignoli, Francesco Baraldi
Abstract
The crisis in Ukraine has demonstrated how political parties in European countries hold different viewpoints about the involvement in military interventions. Existing literature has examined parties’ positions on this issue and how it translates in parliamentary contestation, through a series of different data and methods. Most of these works highlight that right-wing parties tend on average to be more in favour of troop deployments than left-wing parties. Some scholars suggest that this variation is conditioned upon the type of intervention, distinguishing between peacekeeping missions from those driven by strategic goals. We test the impact of government (and opposition) ideology and type of operation on parliamentary support for military interventions in 21 democracies across the world. We show that the presence of a left-wing cabinet (and right-wing opposition) and a mandate for a peacekeeping mission individually increase the level of support. There is no evidence that the type of mission moderates the effect of ideology instead. Through such findings, the article offers a contribution to the debate on the party politics of military interventions and the relevance of parliament in approving troop deployments abroad.
DEMOPE: Democracy under Pressure
Andrea Ceron, Elisabetta De Giorgi, Francesco Marangoni, Luca Pinto, Federico Russo, Andrea Pedrazzani, Francesco Zucchini
Abstract
Crises and emergencies can potentially generate massive human, societal and political consequences, affecting the life of citizens and the functioning of democratic institutions. When crises erupt, political actors face pressures from multiple sides and they struggle to balance responsiveness and responsibility. On the one hand, crises may generate windows of opportunity for policy and institutional change. On the other hand, they impose constraints and create incentives for political actors to both manage and exploit the emergency. Therefore, crises represent a threat and an opportunity that can be exploited by them to achieve personal, institutional and political advantages. In light of this, we aim to systematically assess the impact of crises on democracy and democratic institutions, investigating how crises affect everyday politics (both from a strategic and a communication perspective), the decision-making processes and their outputs, providing a comprehensive (and comparative) framework to account for the politics of crisis in different institutional settings. For this purpose, the DEMOPE (DEMOcracy under PressurE) project will investigate whether crises lead to change and, if so, how do they change politics, trying to disentangle short term and long term effects and to evaluate whether crises produce stable changes or, conversely, politics returns to its routine equilibrium in the long run. Given that different typologies of emergency (defined by the level of threat, uncertainty, and urgency associated with each event) can wield different effects on the political system, we will compare the main crises that Italy and EU countries faced over the last two decades, spanning from the economic and financial crisis, to the migrant crisis, the climate change issue, the COVID-19 pandemic or the Russo-Ukrainian war. Based on this, we will present the main directions of the project as well as the first preliminary enquiries.
Impact of party favorability on candidates’ chances in an open-list PR system
Jaroslaw Flis, Pawel Matusewski, Waldemar Wojtasik
Abstract
The results of elections held in an open-list PR system are the effect of intra-party competition between candidates from the same list and of inter-party competition with candidates from other parties. The paper presents new findings related to the influence of political parties on intra-party competition. Studies conducted so far on individual candidates’ outcomes have focused on the importance of the position on the list, electoral capital, localness, and social media visibility. The research results presented here estimate the weight of the specific factors in the individual outcome of the candidates. However, our main contribution consists in defining party favorability as a factor explaining party-related effects on individual candidates’ results. Our Party Favorability Model explains 68% of variance and performs better than models that use candidates’ personal traits and/or their position on the list. The analysis were conducted in the context of the 2019 European Parliament elections in Poland.
 

Panel 2.5 Parliaments and Citizens


The relationship between parliament and citizens has been the object
of renewed attention in the last few decades. The organisational
decline of political parties, the increasing levels of political
disengagement, and the pervasiveness of the new media have
considerably boosted the necessity for parliamentarians to establish
personal links with the public. In addition, the increasing
availability of data to study parliamentary activities opened new
possibilities for legislative scholars. This panel is open to papers
aiming to shed light on parliamentary roles, parliamentary behaviour
and their significance for citizens, with a focus on case studies or
comparative analyses.

Chairs: Andrea Pedrazzani, Federico Russo

Discussants: Andrea Pedrazzani

Who cares for young people? An analysis of parliamentary questions in Italy and France
Enrico Borghetto, Joao Cancela, Marco Lisi, Julien Navarro
Abstract
The representation of young people (aged between 18 and 35) in parliaments has long interested political scientists because it constitutes an essential component of a well-functioning democratic system. While much of existing scholarly work focuses on the underrepresentation of young people among MPs and elected officials, there is still a lot to be learned about their substantive representation. This paper aims at contributing to this debate by focusing on the extent, how and why MPs use a classical tool such as parliamentary questions to explicitly cater to their younger constituencies. The empirical analysis will provide a comparison of youth substantive representation in two countries, Italy and France, that feature, respectively, one of the oldest and youngest societies in advanced European democracies. They have also shown remarkable differences in the characteristics and evolution of their party systems. Moreover, the two countries have also been affected by the economic crisis in the early 2010s in a very different way. The paper uses new data on oral parliamentary questions in the two countries spanning more than two decades. The comparative research design will allow us to identify whether the salience of youth-related issues is affected by differences in parties’ ideologies, voters’ age structure and age composition of the parliamentary group. By focusing on the causes of youth’s underrepresentation, this study shed light on the dynamics of political representation and democratic quality, as well as the internal functioning of legislatures in difficult times.
The legislators’ constituency orientation and citizens’ satisfaction with democracy. Results from a 4-country conjoint experiment
Federico Russo, Julien Navarro, Laura Em?ke Nagy, Zsófia Papp
Abstract
Prior research sheds light on factors that citizens take into account when they evaluate democratic quality. Various indicators of government and party performance are shown to matter indicating that the output of the political system promotes democratic stability and legitimacy on the long run. This study contributes to the literature by arguing that the legislators’ constituency orientation affects citizens’ satisfaction with democracy. To test the hypothesis of the paper we conduct a conjoint experiment in four countries with markedly different electoral systems: Belgium, France, Italy and Hungary. Conjoint experiments, as a form of survey experiments, are useful in identifying and estimating multiple causal effects nonparametically. The effects of the various attributes can be directly compared, which allows the researcher to test several hypotheses at the same time. Besides testing the effect of constituency orientation, the paper compares this effect to that of economic prosperity, the proportionality of the electoral results, the candidate-centredness of the electoral rules, government ideology, government coalition, minority government, government corruption and party system fragmentation. While the study focuses on macro-level explanations of satisfaction, the analysis further controls for the citizen-level usual suspects in explaining democratic satisfaction
Electoral Incentives and Geographical Representation: Evidence from an Italian Electoral Reform
Edoardo Alberto Viganò
Abstract
Within the large literature on the consequences of electoral systems, a prominent research agenda investigates the effects of electoral rules on representatives' behaviour. Candidate-centred electoral systems create high personal vote incentives that are expected to increase legislators' responsiveness to local constituents, fostering geographical representation. To study the impact of electoral incentives, previous research has focused on mixed-member systems or electoral reforms. Investigating the effects of the 2005 Italian electoral reform from a mixed to a proportional system on the content of written questions and bills, this paper exploits both sources of variation to assess the consequences of the electoral system change on re-elected MPs. Results indicate that, contra the theoretical expectations, MPs formerly elected in SMDs did not significantly decrease their attention to local issues compared to legislators previously elected in the proportional tier of the mixed system. As geographical representation can be seen as a way to reduce the distance between voters and MPs, these conclusions have important implications for representation and distrust in politicians.
MPs roles inside the Italian Parliament. Testing Strom’s (2012) hypothesis
Paolo Gambacciani
Abstract
«Ma no Signore: quel tanto che ciascuno recita nella parte che si è assegnata, o che gli altri gli hanno assegnato nella vita» (Pirandello, Sei Personaggi in cerca d’Autore, p. 66) Quasi sessanta anni fa, Giovanni Sartori (1963) e Maurizio Cotta (1979) si domandavano se le élite politiche fossero autonome da quelle economiche. La risposta di allora fu positiva, perché c’era una classe parlamentare indipendente, che, grazie ai partiti ed ai suoi meccanismi interni di carriera politica, aveva garantito un percorso continuativo e stabile: dagli albori nelle sezioni di partito, sino all’apice degli incarichi di Governo. Allo stesso tempo, la produzione legislativa era quella delle ‘leggine’, con micro-provvedimenti distributivi, che venivano approvati in Commissione in sede legislativa (Di Palma, 1978). Successivamente, dal 1994, mentre lo schema della teoria delle élites veniva progressivamente dismesso, il Parlamento italiano, avvicinandosi a tutti quelli esteri, ha trovato la sua nuova ‘centralità’ nel controllare i Governi, così che gli eletti, espressione delle preferenze degli elettori, vigilassero sulla spesa pubblica e sulle leggi dell’Esecutivo (Capano & Giuliani, 2001; Pasquino & Pelizzo, 2006). In tutto ciò, le carriere politiche hanno avuto più difficoltà a radicarsi nei partiti, riducendosi di lunghezza e diventando più flessibili (Verzichelli, 2010). L’apice di questo processo è avvenuto nelle ultime due Legislature, dove la quota di neoeletti è stata pari a quella raggiunta con Tangentopoli (1994), ovvero superiore al 60%. In questa nuova fase, è necessario interrogarsi su come avvengono le carriere politiche, cambiando però prospettiva, ovvero spostando l’attenzione dai partiti ai Deputati stessi. In particolare, da parte dei parlamentari, data la crisi attraversata dalle forze politiche (Ignazi et al, 2010), esistono delle azioni strategiche propedeutiche al raggiungimento dei loro obiettivi di carriera? Per rispondere a questa domanda di ricerca, si sono analizzate le relazioni tra le attività svolte dai Deputati e la possibilità di essere rieletto e ottenere un incarico nel Legislativo o nel Governo nella XVII e XVIII Legislatura. In base alla più recente letteratura, per ogni rappresentante, si è considerata la sua esposizione mediatica (Grimmer, 2013), la sua specializzazione parlamentare e i rapporti con il collegio di elezione (Russo, 2021), utilizzando, come indicatori, il numero di citazioni in agenzie ANSA e il contenuto delle interrogazioni scritte presentate, per capire se queste privilegiassero un unico tema (specializzazione) o si concentrassero sul proprio territorio d’elezione. Su questi dati, si è effettuata così una two step cluster analysis, per dividere i parlamentari in gruppi e vedere quale tra questi, in base alla teoria dei ruoli di Strøm (1997; 2012), fosse più ‘strategico’ per il perseguimento di un obiettivo di carriera. Per le ultime due Legislature sono stati riscontrati profili di Onorevoli simili a quelli descritti in letteratura. Sono emersi gli Onorevoli che si dedicano solo ai media, ma non all’attività parlamentare (show horses), chi è interessato solo a presentare atti localistici (constituency members), chi interviene solo su questioni dibattute dall’opinione pubblica (generalisti) e chi, invece, durante il mandato si specializza, presentando molti atti parlamentari ed ottenendo una buona presenza mediatica (lawmakers). Questi ruoli sono distribuiti generalmente in proporzione simili tra i partiti, seppure in Forza Italia (o Pdl) sono più presenti gli show horses, mentre nei partiti con pochi rappresentanti di sinistra o di destra i lawmakers (Idv o Fdi). Parallelamente a questo si sono osservate relazioni statisticamente significative tra i ruoli e le esperienze politiche. Nonostante l’ingresso in Parlamento di nuove forze politiche (M5s e Sc) ed un ricambio parlamentare superiore al 60%, nelle Legislature prima e dopo il ‘terremoto elettorale’ del 2013 (Chiaramonte & De Sio, 2015), i constituency members sono sempre stati i Deputati neofiti, con precedenti mandati a livello territoriale ed un incarico di partito a livello regionale, gli show horses coloro che hanno avuto un precedente incarico di Governo e i lawmakers o i generalisti, coloro che, durante il mandato parlamentare, avevano rispettivamente o un incarico nel Legislativo in Commissione o in Aula, o un incarico di partito a livello nazionale Dai primi risultati, per la XVI Legislatura, risulta che il ruolo ‘più strategico’ per ottenere un incarico di Governo è quello di lawmaker, mentre non emergono legami di dipendenza statisticamente significativi tra altri ruoli ed obiettivi di carriera nella XVI e XVII Legislatura. Contrariamente a quanto previsto da Strøm (1997; 2012), i ruoli, in base a queste evidenze, più che essere scelti per un principio ‘strategico’ di carriera politica ed una logica ‘di conseguenzialità’, sembrano derivare maggiormente da norme interne all’Istituzione e da un comportamento ‘appropriato’ da tenere in base alla propria esperienza politica (March & Olsen, 1998). In relazione a questa lettura, si può ipotizzare che le attività parlamentari siano dettate da delle regole interne all’Istituzione, per cui un Deputato, al primo mandato, tende a dedicarsi alle problematiche dei propri elettori, per poi, in seguito, specializzarsi ed apparire sui media, sperando di avere un incarico di Governo. Bibliografia Capano, G., & Giuliani, M. (2001). Parlamento e processo legislativo in Italia: continuità e mutamento. Bologna: Il Mulino. Chiaramonte, A. & De Sio, L. (2015). Terremoto elettorale. Le elezioni politiche del 2013. Bologna: Il Mulino. Cotta, M. (1979). Classe politica e parlamentare in Italia. Bologna: Il Mulino. Di Palma, G. (1978). Sopravvivere senza governare: i partiti nel parlamento italiano. Bologna: Il Mulino. Grimmer, J. (2013). Representational Style in Congress. What Legislator Say and Why it Matters. New York: Cambridge University Press Ignazi, P., Bardi, L., & Massari, O. (2010). Party organisational change in Italy (1991–2006). Modern Italy, 15(2), 197-216. March, J. & Olsen, P. (1998). The institutional dynamics of international political orders. International organization, 4(52), 943-69. Mayhew, D. (2004). Congress - The electoral connection (2a ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. Pasquino, G., & Pellizzo, R. (2006). Parlamenti democratici. Bologna: Il Mulino. Pirandello, L. (1978). Sei personaggi in cerca d’autore. Enrico IV. Cles: Oscar Mondadori. Russo, F. (2021). MP’s Roles and Representation: Orientations, Incentives and Behaviours in Italy. London-New York: Routledge Sartori, G. (1963 a). Il Parlamento italiano 1946-1963. Napoli: Edizioni scientifiche italiane. Strøm, K. (1997). Rules, reasons and routine: legislative roles in Parlamentary democracies. Journal of Legislative Studies, 3(1), 155-74. Strøm, K. (2012). Roles as strategies. Toward a logic of legislative behavior. In M. Blomgren, & O. Rozenberg, Parliamentary Roles in Modern Legislatures (p. 85-100). London-New York: Routledge. Verzichelli, L. (2010). Vivere di politica. Come (non) cambiano le carriere politiche in Italia. Bologna: Il Mulino.